Cognitive Connie
Understanding motor development in toddlerhood
Toddlerhood (roughly 12 to 36 months) is defined, in many respects, by the emergence and rapid refinement of upright locomotion. Walking — initially achieved at around 12–15 months — begins as a precarious, wide-based, high-stepping gait with arms raised for balance. Over the following months it becomes progressively more adult-like: the base narrows, arm swing emerges, and step length and cadence approach mature patterns. Running follows by around 18 months, though early running lacks the flight phase (the brief period when neither foot contacts the ground) that characterises mature running.
Key figures
Esther Thelen
1941–2004Dynamic systems theory framing for understanding how refinement of walking and other skills reflects the self-organisation of neural, biomechanical, and environmental systems rather than simple maturation.
Karen Adolph
1960–Research on locomotor learning in toddlerhood established that motor skill is context-specific, that falling is integral to the learning process, and that perceptual calibration is an active and ongoing component of motor development.
Key concepts
Locomotor refinement
The process by which early walking — characterised by a wide base, high step, and elevated arms — transitions into the smooth, efficient, heel-to-toe gait of older children and adults. Takes approximately 6–12 months after first independent steps, with significant individual variation. Running (18 months), galloping (2–3 years), and skipping (3–4 years) emerge sequentially.
Context-specificity of motor learning
Adolph's key finding that toddlers who are experienced walkers on flat surfaces must re-learn locomotion on slopes, stairs, and novel surfaces. Motor skill is not a general-purpose capacity; each perceptual-motor context poses a distinct learning problem. Toddlers who "know" how to walk down a ramp may still step off a too-steep slope — they lack transfer to the new context.
Stair climbing
A complex coordinated skill emerging across toddlerhood. Ascending with support (~18 months) → descending with support (~20–24 months) → ascending with alternating feet (with handrail, ~24–30 months) → alternating feet ascending and descending without support (~30–36 months). Each step reflects improved bilateral coordination and perception-action calibration.
Fine motor progression
Across toddlerhood, fine motor control advances from the pincer grip to purposeful manipulation: stacking 2–3 blocks (15–18 months), turning pages singly (18–24 months), stacking 6+ blocks (24–30 months), unscrewing lids (24 months), snipping with scissors with assistance (30–36 months). Scribbling → controlled marks → recognisable shapes follows a parallel course.
Throwing and catching
Ball skills emerge in toddlerhood but remain rudimentary. Throwing at 18 months is a whole-arm forward fling with poor accuracy. Catching at this age is typically a passive "trapping" of a large, slow ball against the chest. Both skills undergo marked improvement across the preschool years as eye-hand coordination and trunk rotation develop.
Test your knowledge
Sources
Last reviewed August 2025- 1.
Adolph, K. E., & Hoch, J. E. (2019). Motor development: Embodied, embedded, enculturated, and enabling. Annual Review of Psychology, 70, 141–164.
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Comprehensive review covering locomotor learning and context-specificity in toddlerhood.
- 2.
Adolph, K. E., Vereijken, B., & Shrout, P. E. (2003). What changes in infant walking and why. Child Development, 74(2), 475–497.
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Detailed analysis of kinematic changes in walking across the first year of independent locomotion.