- Kelley's covariance model
- Harold Kelley proposed that we make attributions by assessing three types of information: consistency (does this person always behave this way?), distinctiveness (do they behave this way only in this situation?), and consensus (do others also behave this way?). High consistency, low distinctiveness, and low consensus point to an internal attribution; high consistency, high distinctiveness, and high consensus point to an external attribution.
- Actor-observer bias
- The tendency for actors (people performing a behaviour) to attribute their own actions to situational factors, while observers attribute the same actions to the actor's disposition. A classic asymmetry: 'I shouted because I was stressed' (actor) vs 'They shouted because they're an aggressive person' (observer). First described by Jones and Nisbett (1971).
- Correspondent inference theory
- Jones and Davis (1965) proposed that we infer someone's underlying disposition from their behaviour when the behaviour was freely chosen, produces distinctive (non-common) effects, goes against social desirability, and has personal relevance to us. The more these conditions are met, the more confidently we attribute behaviour to stable character traits.
- Defensive attribution
- The tendency to blame victims for misfortunes in order to maintain the belief that the world is just and that bad things only happen to people who deserve them. Defensive attribution protects us from the anxiety of recognising our own vulnerability — but produces victim-blaming in contexts such as accidents, illness, and crime.
- Ultimate attribution error
- Thomas Pettigrew (1979) extended the fundamental attribution error to intergroup contexts. When an out-group member behaves badly, we attribute it to their character; when an in-group member behaves the same way, we attribute it to circumstances. Conversely, out-group successes are attributed to luck or special advantage. The ultimate attribution error reinforces prejudice and stereotyping.
- Locus of control
- Julian Rotter's concept describing the degree to which individuals believe they control the outcomes in their lives. Those with an internal locus of control believe outcomes are primarily determined by their own actions; those with an external locus of control attribute outcomes to luck, fate, or powerful others. Locus of control is related to, but distinct from, attribution style.