Heider's foundational distinction in attribution theory is between:
A: Stable and unstable causes
B: Internal (dispositional) and external (situational) causes
C: Intentional and unintentional behaviour
D: Conscious and unconscious attributions
Correct: Internal (dispositional) and external (situational) causes
Heider (1958) distinguished between internal attributions — explaining behaviour by the person's character, ability, effort, or intentions — and external attributions — explaining behaviour by situational factors such as luck, task difficulty, or social pressure. This locus dimension (internal vs. external) remains central to all attribution frameworks. Weiner later added stability (stable vs. unstable) and controllability as additional dimensions, especially in achievement contexts.
Kelley's covariation model proposes that we attribute behaviour to a cause that is present when the behaviour occurs and absent when it does not. Which three types of information do we use?
A: Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
B: Motive, opportunity, and outcome
C: Frequency, recency, and salience
D: Similarity, proximity, and reward
Correct: Consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency
Kelley's (1967) covariation model holds that we make causal attributions by examining: (1) Consensus — do other people behave the same way in this situation? (2) Distinctiveness — does this person behave differently in other situations? (3) Consistency — does this person behave this way in this situation across time? High consensus + high distinctiveness + high consistency → situational attribution. Low consensus + low distinctiveness + high consistency → dispositional attribution.
The actor-observer asymmetry predicts that actors attribute their own behaviour more to the situation, while observers attribute the same behaviour more to the actor's disposition.
Answer: True
The actor-observer asymmetry (Jones & Nisbett, 1972) holds that because actors have privileged access to their own situational context and history ("I'm snapping at her because I haven't slept"), they make more situational attributions for their own behaviour. Observers, lacking this information and focusing on the person as the salient figure, make more dispositional attributions. This asymmetry contributes to interpersonal conflict — "you're always like this" vs. "I was stressed".
Match each attributional bias to its description.
Rotter's concept of locus of control refers to:
A: The brain region responsible for self-regulatory behaviour
B: A generalised belief about whether outcomes in one's life are controlled by internal (personal) or external (chance/fate) factors
C: The tendency to attribute others' behaviour to their personality
D: The degree to which a person feels in control of their emotional states
Correct: A generalised belief about whether outcomes in one's life are controlled by internal (personal) or external (chance/fate) factors
Rotter (1966) conceptualised locus of control (LOC) as a stable individual difference in generalised expectancies. Internal LOC — believing outcomes depend on one's own effort and ability — is associated with better health outcomes, academic achievement, and resilience. External LOC — attributing outcomes to luck, fate, or powerful others — is associated with helplessness and poorer outcomes. LOC is distinct from but related to Seligman's learned helplessness and Bandura's self-efficacy.
Attributional style is clinically relevant — people with depression tend to attribute negative events internally, stably, and globally.
Answer: True
Abramson, Seligman & Teasdale (1978) reformulated learned helplessness in attributional terms: depression is associated with an internal-stable-global explanatory style for negative events (e.g., "It's my fault [internal], it always happens to me [stable], and it ruins everything [global]"). Positive events are attributed externally-unstably-specifically. This "depressive attributional style" is a cognitive vulnerability factor for depression and is a key target in cognitive-behavioural therapy.