Begreppsöversikt

Ledarskap

Ledarskapsteorier

Trait theories

1920s-1930s, aimed to find traits that defined leaders from non-leaders. Could not differentiate between leaders and followers, major drawback was that they did not take leader-subordinates interaction or the context into account. (Armandi et al., 2003)

Behavioral theories

Aimed to identify determinants of leadership so people could be trained to become leaders.

Consideration / Employee orientation

Production orientation

Leader Behaviour

Leader styles

Democratic

Participation and delegation

Autocratic

Dictating and centralised

Laissez-faire

Group freedom, hands-off approach

(Fiedler et al. 1994)

The match between leader's style and the degree to which the situation allow for control and influence. Important aspect is the idea that leadership behaviour is fixed, which means that effectiveness could only be improved by changing situational factors.

Leader Styles

Fielder believed styles were fixed. The style needed to be matched with the right situation.

Relationship oriented

Task oriented

Contingency Variables for Situations

Leader-member relations

The degree of confidence, trust and respect subordinates have for the leader

Task Structure

The degree of formalisation and standard operating procedure in job assignments.

Position power

The leader's influence over power-based activities, hiring, firing, salary

Path-Goal Theory (Bass, 1990)

The role of the leader is the clarify the path to the goal, give direction and support. Assumes that leaders can change behaviour depending on situation.

Directive

Communicates expectations, schedules work, guides on task accompishment.

Supportive

Friendly, shows concern for employee needs

4 types of leader behaviour

Participative

Consults with subordinates and uses their input before making a decision

Achievement-oriented

Sets challenging goals and expects subordinates to perform their best

Contingency variables

Environment

Subordinate characteristics

Contingency Leadership (1990s)

Trait (1920-30)

Beteende Teori (until 1960)

Leader Participation model

Related leadership behaviours to decision-making

Not one leadership behaviour that works across all situations. Maybe these theories only explay what the best behaviour is given a certain situation.

Attribution theory and charismatic leadership theory

Leadership is something that we attribute to certain characteristics.

Influences motivation

People tend to exert extra effort because they like their leader

Visionary and transformational leadership

The ability to create, articulate and attract people to a certain vision of the future.

..explain the vision to others

..express the vision verbally and through behaviour

...extend and apply the vision to different leadership contexts

Transactional Leaders

Transformational Leadership

Helps subordinates question established views

Is concerned about the developmental needs of the followers

Full-range leadership theory

Bass (1985) och Burns (1978)

Laissez-faire leadership

The absence of leadership

Transactional

Transformational

The dimensions are all positive and highly interrelates

Contingent Reward

Active management by exception

Passive management by exception

Idealised influence

Inspirational motivation

Intellectual stimulation

Individualsed consideration

The usefulness of the four factor construct has been called into question

Deinert et al. 2015 - meta analysis

Examine personality traits as antecedents and performance as outcome of transformational leadership's four dimensions

What they examined

They looked at if the different big 5 traits had different associations with the four sub-dimensions of transformational leadership

What they found

Agreeableness

+ idealised influence, inspirational motivation, individualsed consideration

- intellectual stimulation

Maybe explained by preference for harmony rather than critical exchanges and divergent thinking

Neuroticism

+ inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation

Extraversion

+ idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation

Openness to experience

+ all sub-dimensions

Conscientiousness

+ overall transformational leadership

- (weak) inspitational motivation and intellectual stimulation

Transformational leadership has strong positive effects on leader performance

The effect sizes of the sub-dimensions differ

Idealised influence weakest impact

Inspirational motivation the strongest impact

Combination of leaders, followers and context

FINDINGS

Neuroticism is negatively associated with leader performance. Extraversion, openness to experience and conscientiousness enhance leader's performance. Agreeableness was the least relevant predictor of leader effectiveness, but the overall relationship was positive.

Leadership Sterotypes

Role congruity model

The mismatch that produces biased evaluation is between stereotypes of women and stereotypes of leaders.

Lack-of-fit

The extent to which a workplace role is inconsistent with the attributes ascribed to an individual, who would then suffer from perceived lack of fit, generating expectations of failure or decreased expectations.

Stereotypes / descriptive beliefs

Expectations of what members of a social group do

Injunctive/prescriptive beliefs

expectations of what members of a social group ought to do, or ideally would do

Kvinnor blir inte tillskrivna ledarskaps egenskaper i samma utsträckning som män

Det uppfattas inte som förväntat när kvinnor uppvisar "agentic behaviour"

Three paradigms have adressed the cultural masculinity leader sterotypes

Think-Manager-Think Male Paradigm

Schein (1973). Ranka olika könssterotypiska traits med ledarkategorier (typ mellanchef) samt män och kvinnor. Correlerade dessa och såg att män och ledaregenskaper är starkare korrelerat.

Stereotypes often are a potent barrier to women’s advancement to positions of leadership.

Agency-Communion paradigm

Utvärderade själva content av ledarrollen som antingen mer agentic eller mer communal.

Masculinity-femininity

Rankade många olika jobb på en maskulin eller feminin skala. Man undersökte då olika typer av ledare.

The incongruity between leader sterotypes is not fixed, but varies with changes in either sterotypes

Eagly & Karau (2002)

All three paradigms shows that stereotypes of leaders are masculine.

People view leaders as quite similar to men, but not very similar to women.

They view them as more agentic than communal.

Evidence was found that leader stereotypes are becoming more androgynous

This shift was found over time across all three paradigms.

The perception of leadership has changed over time

Compared to before, feminine coded relational qualities such as sensitivity, warmth, understanding are now more included in the idea of what a leader is

Women are more often seen in roles of leadership

Increasing failure of traditionally masculine styles of leadership

Men tended to construe leadership as more masculine than women in all three paradigms

Since men are the typical holders of power in organisations, this is especially important to note, since this can limit women's access to positions of authority

The implications of the masculinity of leader roles for prejudice against female leaders are straightforward: Men fit cultural construals of leader- ship better than women do and thus have better access to leader roles and face fewer challenges in becoming successful in them.

- Koening et al.

Dysfunktionellt Ledarskap

Många har upplevt en dålig chef på nivå av ett arbetsmiljöproblem (36% i Sverige, 34-61% i internationella studier)

Typer av destruktivt ledarskap

Aktivt

Passivt

Vanligaste formen

Arrogant och Orättvis

Jag upplever att min närmsta chef fördummar underställda, uppträder arrogant, behandlar personer olika, är otrevlig

Bestraffande med överkrav

Visar aggressiva tendenser, straffar underställda som gör fel eller inte når uppsatta mål, använder sig av hot för att få sin vilja igenom, ställer orimliga krav

Egocentrisk och Falsk

Tar åt sig av underställdas arbete, sätter sina egna behov framför gruppens, inte litar på sina underställda, inte håller sina löften

Passiv och/eller feg

Inte vågar konfrontera andra, inte visar sig bland underställda, inte visar engagemang, inte tar i saker

Osäker och/eller otydlig

Är osäker i sin roll, är dålig på att strukturera och planera, ger otydliga instruktioner, uppträder förvirrat

Enar arbetsgruppen

Söndrar arbetsgruppen

Varför agerar chefer destruktivt?

Ledarfaktorer

Personlighet (mörka triaden, d-faktor)

Följarfaktorer

Motivation, följsamhet, prestation

Miljöfaktorer

Rollbelastning, konflikter, rättvisa, organisatoriska begränsningar

Chefers stress

Destruktivt ledarskap

Självregelering

General factor of personality

General mental ability

General dark factor of personality

The general tendency to maximize one's individidual utility, even when this harms others, or even for the sake of harming others.

D-faktorn

Fem-Faktor Modellen

Låg nivå av agreeableness, låg nivå av C, hög nivå av N

Beteende

1) Maximerar egen nytta 2) Orsakar andra en förlust i nytta

Framförallt låg nivå av A

Kontraprduktiva arbetsbeteenden

Stöld, förstöra egendom, missbruka information, riskbeteenden, frånvaro

Finns förutsättningarna för gott ledarskap?

Behöver ta hänsyn till resurser och belastningar. Stöd från ledning, stöd från medarbetare, resurser,

Resurser

Stöd från ledning, medarbetarstöd (medarbetare som tar ansvar, är trygga, självständiga, intresserade), Positiva brukare (kunder?)

Belastningar

Resursbrist, logikkonflikter (konflikt mellan olika tankesystem, exempelvis mellan olika avdelningar), personalproblem (konflikter, prestations, samarbete), brukarproblem (hot och våld)

Hur ska dysfunktionella ledarskap hanteras av organisationen?

1. Utveckla urvalsprocesserna

Kontrollera vem som kan bli en del av organisationen

2. Nolltolerans från HR och överordnade chefer

Tydlighet för nya chefer, utveckla klimat som stoppar och identifierar

3. Rådgivning, handledning och ledarträning

4. I värsta fall, avslut

God effekt av träning

Formulera och förmedla visioner, coacha sina medarbetare, öva självreglering

Hur?

Träna på stöd till medarbetare, öka självreglering (medveten närvaro), gruppdiskussioner och rollspel

Defeating Abusive Supervision: Training Supervisors to support subordinates.

(Gonzalez-Morales et al.)

Benevolence/Välvilja

Uppmärksamma ansträgningar, acceptera misstag, stöd genom träning och vidareutveckling

Sincerity/Ärlighet

Behandla andra med respekt, var ärlig och punktlig med kommunikation både positiv och negativ. Ge konstruktiv feedback.

Fairness/Rättvisa

Transparans kring beslut och processer, tydliga regler och förhållningssätt, möjlighet för anställda att göra sina röster hörda

Mindfulness / Medveten närvaro

Insamla all nödvändig information, gör avvägningar kring vilka konversationer som ska vara privata och publika, utöva aktivt lyssnande,

Definiera destruktivt ledarskap

Perception vs Actual Behaviour

Schyns & Schilling argue that it needs to be perceived by the followers

Intent?

It is hard to empirically define if there was an intent or not, but when there is intent it is considered worse/more harmful

Physical, verbal and non-verbal

All aspects should be considered

Should it include the outcomes?

Schyns & Schilling focus of the target of the behaviour rather than what it led to

"A process in which over a longer period of time, the activities, experiences and/or relationships of an individual or the members od a group are repeatedly influences by their supervisor in a way that is perceived as hostile or obstructive"

What is not destructive leadership?

While Laissez-faire leadership is ineffective and considered to be "non-leadership" it should not result in the same long-term detrimental consequences that destructive leadership does.

Vilka effekter får destruktivt ledarskap?

Followers are likely to have negative attitudes towards the leader

Direct retaliation toward the leader

Hard to get followers to 'follow'

However, they might still be able to meet their goals, which may be why the behaviours emerged

Followers to have negative attitudes towards the job & to the organisation as a whole

Increased intention to quit

Negative attitudes

Turnover increases

Performance decreases

Counterproductive work behaviour

High correlation with destructive leadership behaviour

Sign of a more general negative organisational culture that allow for these types of behaviours

Personal life of the followers (relationship is correlational)

Negative affectivity, occupational stress, emotional exhaustion, reduced familiy well-being

Leadership emergence

Olika typer av motivation

Metaanalysen ger support till de tre olika konstrukten.

Affective-Identity (AFF-MTL)

Hur mycket man ser sig själv som ledare, och njuter av ledarskapet

Social-normative MTL

Hur mycket man ser ledarskapet som ett ansvar och plikt

Noncalculative MTL

Hur mycket man uppskattar rollen som ledare, oavsett vilka personliga kostnader det kommer med

Interpersonal circumplex theory

Agency

Seeing oneself as a differentiated individual, striving for mastery and power, striving to maintaing or enhance the differentiation

Communion

Seeing oneself as part of a larger society, solidarity for the group, striving for intimacy and union

Leader behaviour

Behaviours assocated with leadership, i.e. sharing a vision

Leader effectiveness

The extent to which an indiviudal fulfills the role as a leader

Greater agentic orientation (antecedent)

Greater communal orientation

Dual focus towards both agentic and communion

All three MTL predicted leader emergence and tranformational leadership

Predicted. leader effectiveness

Positive relationship with transactional leadership

Ledarskapsträning

Leader development / Leadership development

Leadership development takes into account the interaction between leader and follower

Utvärdera program

Reactions

Trainee attitudes toward the training. May serve as an indicator for motivation (as one needs to be motivated to learn) - Bandura

Learning

A relatively permanent change in knowledge or skill produced by experience (what the trainees can do AFTER the training)

Transfer

What the trainee will do, the extent to which trainees utilize the skills and abilities on the job.

Results

The training's effect on achieving the organisational objectives.

Training Design Characteristics

Needs analysis/Behovsanalys

The process of identifying the organisational, group or individual training need and aligning those with the program needs.

Training attendance policy

Essentially what is the best policy for who should be invited.

Self-determination theory

Voluntary training programs would work as autonomy fosters motivation.

Mandatory

Signaling by the organisation that this is important

Spacing effect

Cognitive load theory is a learning effeciency theory, holds that we have a finite capacity to transfer to long-term memory and once this is met processing or learning is hindered,

Trainee's level of leadership

The level of leader (low, middle, high) may be perceptive to different degrees

Training instructor

Trainee motivation may be influenced by the type of instructor, external/internal

Training Delivery and Implementation characteristics

Delivery method

Purpose

1) Deliver information 2) Demonstrate skills and abilities 3) To offer practice opportunities

Practice based are considered the most critical when influencing training outcomes

Supported by constructivist learning theory

Information may also be effective, but probably not as a stand-alone

Feedback

Signals informting actual and intended performance, engagement in metacognitive activities

Source of feedback

Single source vs 360 feedback

Training Location

Theory of identical elements; training transfer is maximised when training stimuli align with the actual work environment

Assessed through fidelity

Equipment

Environment

Psychological fidelity

Training Setting

Face-to-face better than virtual

People tend to like leadership training programs

Leadership training programs are actually MORE effective than previously thought.

Organisational outcome greater than subordinate outcome

Stronger effect of leadership improvements on the organisational level, rather than trickle down to subordinates

Needs analysis

Results in greater transfer and learning

Increases transfer, but decreases organisational results

May deliver greater number of attendees and therefore greater organisational result

Learning occurs regardless of spacing, BUT training with multiple sessions led to greater transfer and results

Similar gains in results criterion

Equal motivation to learn, no evidence of ceiling effects

Difference in transfer

4 x weaker in high leaders, maybe due to entrenched behaviour

Combining delivery methods are significantly better than using single or two methods

Use practice if we only have time for one, but if time allows use multiple methods

Feedback is good improves, transger, reactions, learning, and results

Effectively designed feedback

Outcome of 360 feedback is a bit more complex

Maybe getting high-quality feedback from one source is better than the potential of receiving negative feedback from multiple

Onsite better than offsite

Content

Matters!

Soft skills improved organisational and subordinate outcomoes more than hard skills

Use a needs analysis

Use multiple delivery methods

Include hard skills

Use multiple delivery method

Provide feedback

Use a face-to-face setting

Make attendance voluntary

Have multiple sessions

Include both hard and soft skills

Use multiple delivery method

Hold on-site

Require mandatory attendance

Have multiple sessions

Provide as much training as possible (longer is more effective)

Include soft skills

Lacerenza et al. (2017)

Effective Leadership Behaviour

Leadership behaviour over time

1950-1980s

How leaders influence the attitudes and performance of indivudal subordinates

1980s

Change behaviours were included in surveys

Task-Oriented Behaviour

Ensure people, equipment and other resources are used in an efficient way to accomplish the goal.

Planning, organising, clarifying roles and responsibilities

Relations-Oriented Behaviour

Enhance member skills, leader-member relationship, identification with the work unit or organisation

Supporting, recognicing, developing, empowering

Change-Oriented Behaviour

Increase innovation, collective learning, adaptation to external changes, articulating an inspiring vision, encouraging innovation

Advocating for change, envisioning change..

External Leadership Behaviours

Most leaders can facilitate performance with beahviours that provide relevant information about external events and get neccessary resources and assistance, as well as promote reputation and interests of the work unit.

Networking, external monitoring, representing,

Quality & Timing

A lot of research has focused on how much the behaviour is used, however, all behaviour can be used too much or too little.