Match each founding school of psychology to its defining focus.

What is respondent learning (classical conditioning)?

A: Learning that occurs when a behaviour is followed by a reinforcing or punishing consequence

B: Learning in which a neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response

C: Learning that occurs through observation and imitation of a model

D: The gradual weakening of a response due to repeated exposure without consequence

Correct: Learning in which a neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response

Respondent (classical/Pavlovian) conditioning is one of two fundamental forms of associative learning. It involves a reflexive (respondent) behaviour being elicited by a previously neutral stimulus after that stimulus has been repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus. The key is that the behaviour is elicited — pulled out — by the stimulus, rather than emitted voluntarily. It is crucial to understand in clinical psychology, especially for anxiety disorders and phobias.

What is the key difference between respondent (classical) and operant (instrumental) conditioning?

A: Respondent conditioning involves rewards; operant conditioning involves punishment

B: Respondent conditioning involves reflexive behaviour elicited by a stimulus; operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviour controlled by its consequences

C: Respondent conditioning applies only to animals; operant conditioning applies to humans

D: Respondent conditioning is faster; operant conditioning requires more trials

Correct: Respondent conditioning involves reflexive behaviour elicited by a stimulus; operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviour controlled by its consequences

The fundamental distinction is in the type of behaviour: respondent conditioning works on reflexive behaviours already in the organism's repertoire (e.g., salivation, fear responses, the eye-blink reflex). Operant conditioning works on emitted, voluntary behaviour whose future frequency is determined by its consequences. Both types of learning are always operating — respondent events often set the occasion for operant behaviour.

Habituation is a form of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus with no consequence leads to a decreased response to that stimulus.

Answer: True

Habituation is one of the simplest and most ubiquitous forms of non-associative learning. When an organism is repeatedly exposed to a stimulus that has no meaningful consequence, the response to that stimulus weakens. For example, a loud noise initially causes a startle, but after many repetitions without consequence, the startle diminishes. Habituation is adaptive — it prevents the nervous system from wasting resources responding to irrelevant stimuli.

In operant conditioning, what is positive reinforcement?

A: Praising good behaviour to make the person feel good

B: The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour, increasing that behaviour's future frequency

C: The addition of an appetitive stimulus following a behaviour, which increases the future probability of that behaviour

D: Any pleasant consequence that follows a behaviour

Correct: The addition of an appetitive stimulus following a behaviour, which increases the future probability of that behaviour

Positive reinforcement is defined functionally, not by subjective experience: a stimulus is a positive reinforcer if its presentation following a behaviour increases the future frequency of that behaviour. The word "positive" means something is added (presented), not that it is pleasant — though reinforcers are typically things the organism approaches. Positive reinforcement is the most effective and ethical tool for increasing behaviour in applied behaviour analysis.

What is negative reinforcement? (Note: this is one of the most commonly misunderstood concepts in psychology.)

A: Punishment — applying something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour

B: The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour, which increases the future probability of that behaviour

C: Ignoring a behaviour so it goes away

D: A negative emotional response to a stimulus

Correct: The removal of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour, which increases the future probability of that behaviour

Negative reinforcement is frequently confused with punishment, but they are opposites in effect. Reinforcement — positive or negative — always increases behaviour. Negative reinforcement involves the removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus following a behaviour, which increases that behaviour. Example: taking paracetamol (behaviour) removes a headache (aversive stimulus) — you are negatively reinforced to take paracetamol again. It is "negative" because something is removed, not because it feels bad.

What is an antecedent in behavioural analysis?

A: The consequence that follows a behaviour

B: Any stimulus or event that precedes and influences the probability of a behaviour occurring

C: The internal motivation that drives behaviour

D: A behaviour that occurs before the target behaviour in a chain

Correct: Any stimulus or event that precedes and influences the probability of a behaviour occurring

In the three-term contingency (ABC: Antecedent → Behaviour → Consequence), an antecedent is any stimulus condition present before a behaviour occurs that influences whether and how that behaviour is performed. Antecedents serve as discriminative stimuli (signalling that reinforcement is available), establishing operations (altering the value of reinforcers), or triggers for respondent behaviour. Identifying antecedents is essential in functional behaviour assessment.

Place these founding moments in the history of psychology in the correct chronological order.